Halloween - October 31, 2026 - Origins, Customs and Modern Celebration

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Its Halloween this month, therefore timely to outline key information about this event -

Origins and History

Halloween is observed on 31 October each year, drawing on both ancient Celtic tradition and the Christian calendar. Its earliest antecedent is usually traced to Samhain, a Gaelic festival marking the end of the harvest and the start of winter. Medieval Irish sources describe Samhain as a time when the boundary between the living and the otherworld was believed to weaken, and communities marked it with feasts and bonfires.

The Christian connection comes through All Saints’ Day, a feast honouring saints and martyrs. By the ninth century it was observed on 1 November throughout the Western Church, and the evening before became known as All Hallows’ Eve, later shortened to Halloween. All Souls’ Day, on 2 November, was established around AD 1000 as a day of prayer for the dead. Together these observances formed a three-day period centred on remembrance.

Historians continue to debate how directly Samhain shaped the Christian feasts. Some scholars see a deliberate overlay of Christian observance on older customs. Others note that written accounts of Samhain date only from the early medieval period, were recorded by Christian scribes, and say little about practice before conversion, so a direct line from pre-Christian ritual to the Christian feasts cannot be demonstrated.

Traditional Customs

Many familiar practices developed in Ireland, Scotland and parts of England between the medieval and early modern periods. Souling was a custom in which the poor visited households on All Hallows’ Eve, offering prayers for the dead in exchange for soul cakes, small spiced cakes given as alms. Guising, in which people wore disguises and performed songs or tricks in return for food or coins, is recorded in Scotland from at least the sixteenth century, often at New Year. Halloween guising in Scotland and Ireland is well documented in nineteenth-century accounts. Bonfires and divination games, often using apples and nuts to predict future marriages, were also common.

Lanterns carved from turnips and other root vegetables were used to ward off spirits. The name jack-o’-lantern is linked to an Irish folk tale about a man known as Stingy Jack. In North America, where pumpkins were plentiful and easier to carve, they largely replaced turnips.

Celebration Practices Today

In the United States, Halloween is largely a secular and commercial occasion. Irish and Scottish immigrants, particularly during the nineteenth century, helped establish its customs there. Trick-or-treating became widespread by the mid-twentieth century and is now central to the event, alongside costumes, pumpkin carving, decorated homes, parties and themed attractions.

In Europe, practice varies by region. Ireland and the United Kingdom retain the closest links to the older customs, with costumes, children’s door-to-door visits, fireworks and bonfire events in some areas. In much of continental Europe, Halloween is a more recent import, growing in popularity since the 1990s through American film, television and retail. Traditional observance there centres on All Saints’ Day on 1 November, a public holiday in countries including France, Italy, Spain, Austria and Poland. Families visit cemeteries to place flowers and candles on graves.

Happy Halloween !

Health - reading for leisure is good for cognitive and overall mental health

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There have been a number of media reports published recently regarding research from the University of Cambridge which showed the health benefits of reading from pleasure. This research supports what many people thought anecdotally, that reading was good for the mind however there was no collective gathering of data to support this view. Researcher Barbara Sahakian and her colleagues at the University of Cambridge pooled data from five surveys and eight long-term studies covering thousands of participants that has now provided evidence for that insight.

The data did link reading to a greater volume of matter in that part of the human brain which supports thinking and memory including stronger communication between regions of the brain. There is speculation that reading builds cognitive reserve which assists with the brain's ability to defend against ageing and enables better adaptation to damage often caused by modern lifestyles.

Better mental health was also cited as a benefit from reading with one childhood study showing children who started reading earlier in life had moderately large brain surfaces and volumes in emotional control centres.

In summary, reading for pleasure was connected by the research team to reduced stress, greater empathy, enhanced well-being and reduced loneliness. A reduction in cognitive decline was also seen in older adults. In light of other research relating to the health benefits of activity for older adults, reading for pleasure can be added to the list of positive actions that can be taken.

A link to the research paper is below:

Cambridge University - Reading and associations with brain health cognition wellbeing and mental health

Climate Change - the economics of wind turbines for renewable energy in Australia

 

Why are new wind farms stuck in the doldrums in Australia?

Kumuthini Sivathas, Adelaide University and Susan Stone, Adelaide University

Renewables now contribute more than 40% of the electricity generated in Australia’s main grid. Twenty years ago, that figure was under 10%. Despite this growth, the federal target of 82% by 2030 is slipping out of reach.

This comes down to one reason: uneven investment. Australia is now the world’s third-largest market for grid-scale batteries, while solar farms are proceeding steadily.

But the real problem is wind. Supply chain shortages, financing issues, construction cost increases and political changes have made wind projects much more difficult to build. And that’s going to be a problem – Australia needs more wind projects to fill the gap as old coal plants retire.

It’s not all bad news. Last week, a large new wind farm in Western Australia secured the necessary financing to go ahead. But more needs to be done.

A transition well underway

Huge change has already come to Australia’s power grids.

But the clean energy rebuild isn’t done yet. An estimated A$106 billion of investment will be needed by 2050.

At present, these funds are thin on the ground. The 2026 survey by the Clean Energy Investor Group found the percentage of major investors rating Australia’s clean energy sector as “attractive” fell from 69% in 2025 to 58%, while the percentage regarding it as “somewhat unattractive” more than doubled from 8% to 19%.

That’s a problem. Wind projects have to be financed years before they earn any revenue. On average, wind projects take over a year longer to be built than solar. These longer build times mean, with higher interest rates, these projects have higher upfront costs.

Investors warn that the Coalition’s retreat from net zero threatens a recovery in confidence. The National and Liberal parties have ended their commitment to net zero.

Projects that began under one set of policy assumptions can run into trouble if these change.

Renewables aren’t collapsing – just wind

Australia’s renewable slowdown isn’t uniform. Solar and batteries are going strong, while wind farms are struggling. This year, few new wind farms have reached the stage where construction could actually begin.

Wind is crucial. The Australian Energy Market Operator is counting on wind to generate 47% of the total power from renewables in the main power grid by 2030.

Once wind power is built, it becomes one of the most efficient and reliable sources of energy available. In windy areas, turbines can turn day and night.

But trade data shows Australia’s imports of battery storage roughly quadrupled between 2022 and 2025, while imports of wind turbines and equipment have fallen sharply.

This matches investment figures: in 2025, investment in batteries rose almost 70% to $4.8 billion, while wind investment fell almost 60% to $2.6 billion. Solar farm investment dropped a little, falling 5% to $1.9 billion.

Why is wind tricky?

Solar farms are typically smaller and faster to build. They’re also easier to finance in stages. Wind farms tend to be larger, take longer to plan and build and are harder to finance in stages.

Economics pose another challenge. To be viable, wind farms need electricity prices above $100 per megawatt-hour. But the market is currently offering around $60.

Then there are construction costs, which have risen sharply in recent years. Turbine prices rose almost 40% between 2020 and 2022. Other challenges include the cost of new transmission lines, and a shortage of skilled workers.

Then there’s politics. In February last year, the Queensland government began requiring wind farm backers to do significantly more in terms of full impact assessments and public consultation. It also gave third parties more rights to appeal. In May, the state government axed the large, conditionally approved, Moonlight Ridge wind farm.

Unsurprisingly, no new wind farm applications have been lodged in Queensland since.

Cost increases are threatening Australia’s wind farm construction pipeline. ZU_09/Getty

Wind has to be ready for coal to exit

It’s common for wind projects to take about five years to become reality. If investors are reconsidering, Australia may not have enough clean energy in the pipeline to replace increasingly unreliable coal plants slated for retirement.

Victoria’s Yallourn power station will close in 2028, while Australia’s largest coal plant, Eraring will close in 2029, after a two-year extension. Queensland’s Gladstone plant may be retired in 2029, six years early.

These three large plants produce about 30 terawatt-hours a year between them – roughly twice South Australia’s total annual power generation.

If the present wind drought isn’t resolved soon, it will leave a large gap that won’t show up in energy statistics until it’s too late to fix.

Wind is key

If these worrying investment trends continue, wind will produce less power than authorities expected. Solar and batteries could take up some of the slack, but not all.

Overcoming these doldrums won’t be easy. But it has to be done. To do this, investors need certainty. That will mean giving clearer commitments to long-term climate policy at a national level.

More predictable state planning rules would help, as would allowing contracts to better reflect real construction costs.

Australia has come a long way down the path to a renewable energy future. But it’s not yet job done. To complete the transition, we will need wind.

Kumuthini Sivathas, Postdoctoral Researcher in Economics, Adelaide University and Susan Stone, Credit Union SA Chair of Economics, Adelaide University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Understanding the risks of misusing Artificial Intelligence

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The risks of AI 

Artificial intelligence is best understood as a general-purpose technology with built-in inherent risks. The system that helps draft a work email can also help draft a scam. At the moment, public discussion often centres on AI acting on its own, but the more immediate risk is human: what people deliberately do with these tools, and how carelessly they sometimes use them. This article covers three areas: criminal use, military use, and negligent use. 

Criminal Use

Fraud is the clearest example. Language models can write fluent, personalised phishing messages, removing the spelling errors that once exposed many scams. Voice-cloning tools can imitate a person from a short audio sample, and cloned voices have been reported in “family emergency” and payment-authorisation scams. Image and video generators can produce forged documents, fabricated evidence and non-consensual intimate imagery.

AI also lowers the skill barrier. Someone with limited technical ability may get help writing malicious code or planning a social-engineering attack. How much extra capability this gives criminals is still debated. Developers build safeguards into their products, but safeguards are imperfect, and openly released models can be modified to remove them.

Military Use

Armed forces are adopting AI for intelligence analysis, logistics, surveillance, cyber operations and, in some systems, target identification. The concerns are specific:

• Speed: Automated systems can compress the time humans have to deliberate, increasing the risk of escalation by error.
• Accuracy at scale: A misidentification by one soldier is a single mistake. A flawed model can repeat the same mistake thousands of times.
• Accountability: When a system contributes to a harmful decision, responsibility is harder to assign.
• Arms-race pressure: States may deploy systems before they are adequately tested because they fear falling behind rivals.

International discussion of autonomous weapons is ongoing, however there is no binding global agreement governing the use of such weapons.

Negligence and misuse

Not all misuse is intentional. Large language models generate plausible text, not verified facts, and they can state falsehoods with complete confidence. This is often called “hallucination.” In 2023, lawyers in a New York, US federal case were sanctioned after submitting a brief containing case citations that a chatbot had invented. The tool did not fail unusually; the users simply did not check its output and this is by no means an isolated example.

 
Three negligent habits recur:

• Over-trust: Relying on AI output for medical, legal or financial decisions without independent verification.
• Vague instructions: Poorly specified prompts tend to produce answers that look right but miss the actual need, and the user may not notice.
• Excess access: Connecting AI agents to email, files or payment systems without limiting permissions or monitoring actions. A mistake then becomes an action with real consequences.

Psychologists call the underlying tendency 'automation bias': people defer to automated systems even when their own judgement or even gut instinct would have caught the error.

Reducing the risk
No single measure removes these risks, but several can assist:

• Treat AI output as a draft that needs checking, especially where errors are costly.
• Keep a human responsible for consequential decisions.
• Give AI tools the minimum access required for the task.
• Be specific about what you want, and test the result against known facts.
• Support clear rules and transparency from developers, businesses and governments.

Summing up: At this time, AI’s risks come largely from how people choose to use it and the degree of care they take to supervise it. Criminals exploit its capabilities, militaries may deploy it faster than they can test it, and ordinary users may trust it more than its' reliability is justified. Understanding these patterns is a practical first step toward using the technology responsibly. It falls within human action to use AI efficiently and ethically.

CRISPR, genetic engineering and humanity

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What is CRISPR ?

CRISPR-Cas9 is a method for making targeted changes to genetic DNA. It was adapted from a defence system in bacteria, which use it to recognize and cut the DNA of invading viruses. The tool has two main parts: a guide RNA, a short molecule designed to match a specific DNA sequence, and Cas9, an enzyme that cuts the DNA at that location. After the cut, the cell's own repair machinery takes over which enables researchers to disable a gene or alter its sequence. 

In terms of the origin of this biotechnology, in 2012 Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna demonstrated that the bacterial system could be reprogrammed to cut any DNA molecule at a chosen site. They received the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the work . Refinements have since followed such as Base editing, for example, that changes a single DNA letter without making a complete double-strand cut.

The first approved CRISPR medicine is Casgevy (exagamglogene autotemcel), from Vertex Pharmaceuticals and CRISPR Therapeutics. The US Food and Drug Administration approved it on December 8, 2023 for sickle cell disease, and on January 16, 2024 for transfusion-dependent beta thalassemia. Both approvals cover patients aged 12 and older. Both diseases stem from mutations in the HBB gene, which encodes part of adult hemoglobin.

Casgevy works outside the body, a method called ex vivo editing. A patient's blood-forming stem cells are collected, edited in a laboratory at a regulatory region of the BCL11A gene, and returned to the patient. The edit allows the body to produce fetal hemoglobin, which lacks the abnormality behind these diseases. Before infusion, patients receive the chemotherapy drug busulfan to make room for the edited cells.

In the phase 3 sickle cell trial, 44 patients were treated. Of the 30 with enough follow-up to be evaluated, 29 had no severe pain crises for at least 12 consecutive months, and all 30 avoided hospitalization for them. Median follow-up was 19.3 months.

CRISPR-based treatment has costs. As an example, it list price is $2.2 million, and it must be given at authorized centres experienced in stem cell transplantation. The most common side effects for patients are mouth sores, fever with low white blood cell counts, and reduced appetite.
  
Personalized therapy and future uses

In May 2025, physicians at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and Penn Medicine reported the first personalized CRISPR-based treatment. The patient was an infant, known as KJ, with severe CPS1 deficiency, a metabolic disease usually treated with a liver transplant. The team designed and manufactured a base-editing therapy, delivered to the liver in lipid nanoparticles, within six months.  No serious side effects had been reported at the time of this blog article. The lead physician-researcher described the hope that this approach can be scaled to fit individual patients' needs. However the result comes from just one patient, so its' general applicability is unproven.

Current use in health care

Other researchers see base editing as a possible durable treatment for single-gene liver diseases that conventional gene therapy handles poorly. Three constraints are visible in the current evidence. First, most advanced examples target blood or liver. Second, follow-up is measured in months to a few years, so long-term durability and safety remain open. Third, prices on the order of millions of dollars limit access. Whether personalized editing can become routine will depend on the cost, speed, and efficacy of designing therapies one patient at a time.